PeaceDocs | Bibliography | Definitions
CHAPTER 1: Definitions of Peace and Peacemaking
Some Dictionary Definitions
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61.Curran, P.C. “Peace,” NCE 11 (1967): 37.
A standard pre-Vatican II definition: peace is untroubled peace of mind, composure of soul, or tranquility between persons. Peace postulates order and harmony. Charity, however, is the basis of peace.
62. McKenzie, John L., S.J. “Peace,” Dictionary of the Bible. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing, 1965, 651-52.
A brief review of its meanings using biblical citations. Lacks bibliography.
63. McReavy, L.L. “Pacifism,” NCE 10: 855-57.
An historical survey in the pre-Vatican II mold, emphasizing the incompatibility of pacifism with the Catholic tradition. The early Fathers avoided the problem of war by avoiding public life. Augustine justified war. Covers 1000 years of the Middle Ages in six lines. Only heretics, or Protestants, were ever pacifists. In the modern world no Catholic can possibly be a pacifist. Fills out the last part of the article with a lengthy discussion of the just war, including nuclear pacifism, and Catholics’ duty to repel “godless tyranny.”
64. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971, 2: 2105 (P: 581-84).
All the English meanings of peace: freedom from war civil disorder and violence, a cessation of hostilities, personal peace and quiet, peace of mind, friendliness, stillness and quiet, public order, reconciliation. The peacemaker is one who brings all this about.
65. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co., 2008.
Contemporary American meanings and derivations for pacific, pacifism, pacifist, passive, peace, peaceable, and peacemaker. Offers a few surprises in the strict dictionary meanings of words often confused in popular usage.
Peace in the Classical World
For Greek and Roman definitions and texts, see also the Perseus Digital Library.
66. Den Boer, Willem. Private Morality in Greece and Rome. Leiden: Brill, 1979.
A good summary of recent scholarship. Den Boer is skeptical of attempts to read too many Christian overtones of human solidarity into eirene, an essentially social or political term. Other terms like filia (love of neighbor), homonoia (unity or concord), and galene (inner calm) more expressed the Christian content of peace.
67. De Souza, Philip, and John France. War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History. Cambridge and New Yolk: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Collected essays on treaties, alliances, diplomacy and the definitions of war and peace.
68. Harris, William V. War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.
Presents the thesis that throughout its long history of essentially aggressive and imperialistic wars, Rome was motivated primarily by the ethos of the warrior elite. While it made war almost every year in the period examined, Rome was always careful to maintain at least the pretext of a defensive and “just” war supported by the proper religious sanctions. In fact, “the Romans seem to have conceived of pax as a condition that could only result from successful war.” No successful opposition to war ever existed within Roman society in this period.
69. Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History 1. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean basin in two centuries and spent more of its years at war than any other pre-industrial society. “Right down to the end of the Republic Rome is best seen as a warrior state.” While the rhetoric of peace masked their aggressions, accounts of war, slaughter, conquest and enslavement fascinated the Romans. Excellent background for the social ethos that Christian peacemakers confronted in the first centuries C.E.
70. MacMullen, Ramsay. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.
Pages 50-57 provide valuable discussion of the goals of Roman religion and its contrast to Judaeo-Christian concepts of peace. To the Romans peace meant the benefits gainable through public action: health, beauty, financial gain, safety. Material benefits followed service to the gods. Salvation meant health and prosperity.
71. Melko, Matthew, and Richard D. Weigel. Peace in the Ancient World. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1981.
The Pax Romana is paradigmatic. This book describes peace as that of imperial order and the absence of physical conflict in space and time. The authors follow it fortunes in the various Egyptian kingdoms, Phoenicia, Athens, Corinth, under the Achaemenids and Ptolemies, in the Roman Republic, Empire, and in Iberia. The study ranges from 2000 B.C.E. to C.E. 400.
72. Préaux, Claire. “La paix a l’époque hellenistique.” Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 14 (1961): 227-301.
Good introduction to peace as a rare commodity in the Greek world. Details the frequency of wars and the aspirations for peace, including the social peace within city-states, peace between cities, the king’s peace, and procedures for obtaining peace agreements.
73. Zampaglione, Gerardo. The Idea of Peace in Antiquity. Richard Dunn, trans. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973.
This is the best and most comprehensive book on the topic, the place to begin any study. The meanings of peace as pax for the Romans, eirene for the Greeks, and salom for the Hebrews is given careful and detailed discussion, paying close attention to etymologies, ancient (including biblical) sources where the terms appear, the intellectual framework of the concept’s development, and modern scholarly opinion. Good bibliography.
The Meaning of eirene
74. Beck, H., and Colin Brown. “Peace,” New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1978, 2: 776-83.
The etymology of eirene from Homer through Plato and Epictetus to the Septuagint. Generally for the pagan Greeks peace meant the absence of war and the state of law and order that gives rise to prosperity. With Plato peace also meant peaceful conduct in an external sense, and only with the Stoics a spiritual peace. With the Septuagint Greek picked up the meanings of salom and is used almost invariably to translate that word. Extensive use of biblical citations.
75. Foerster, W., et al. “Eirene,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Gerhard Kittel, ed.; Geoffrey W. Bromley, trans. and ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976, 2: 400-420.
Traces the meanings of eirene from its Greek origins, compares it with Roman pax, and shows how the concept was transformed when used to translate Hebrew salom in the Septuagint. An excellent introduction to the etymological study of our biblical concepts of peace. Extensive use of biblical citations.
The Meaning of pax
76. Imbert, Jean. “Pax Romana.” Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 14 (1961): 303-19.
For the Romans peace was essentially the absence of armed struggle and was based on treaties between states. Both war and peace had their basis in law.
77. Oxford Latin Dictionary. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short, eds. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966, 1320.
Derivations and meaning of pax as peace, a treaty of peace, tranquility, the absence of war, peace of mind, the rest of sleep or death, a favor, permission, or a dominion or empire. Hence the irony of the Pax Romana.
78. Roscher, Wilhelm Heinrich. “Pax,” in Ausführliches Lexicon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie. 6 vols. Leipzig, 1884-1937; reprint Hildesheim: Olms, 1965. 3, 2: 1719-22.
Surveys the Latin meanings of peace.
79. Waddy, L.H. Pax Romana and World Peace. New York: Norton, 1954.
This frankly apologetic work bears all the marks of the Cold War and begs comparisons to the post-war Pax Americana. Peace is the international stability of order gained through constant vigilance and the readiness to defend it militarily. Its benefits are political, economic, and cultural.
Peace in the Hebrew Bible
80. See also PeaceDocs, Texts, Jewish.
81. Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975.
A good general history, with a definite political approach. The role of suffering in creating both the discipline of Jewish history and of the Jewish nation is stressed.
82. Baron, Salo Wittmayer. A Social and Religious History of the Jews. 17 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952-1976.
This is the standard historical reference on the history of the Jews. Volume 1 offers good background for the Hebrew Bible. Volume 2 covers the period that witnessed the rise of Christianity.
83. Cambridge Ancient History. 19 vols. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970–2005.
Revised and updated. The standard history of the ancient world. Classic articles by recognized authorities. In process of revision.
83.1 Fishbane, Michael A. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.
83.1 Miller, James Maxwell, and John Haralson Hayes. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. London: SCM Press, 1986.
84. Mitchell, T.C. “Israel and Judah from the Coming of Assyrian Domination until the Fall of Samaria, and the Struggle for Independence in Judah (c.750–c.700 B.C.).” See 83, 3.2: 322–70.
85. —. Judah until the Fall of Jerusalem (c.700–586 B.C.).” See 83, 3.2: 371–409.
86. Noth, Martin. The Old Testament World. Victor I. Gruhn, trans. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964.
An excellent introduction to the period. While political history is given only a brief synopsis, the book reviews the text of the Old Testament and its development.
87. Peebles, B.M. “Bible, IV, 13: Latin Versions,” NCE 2: 436-57.
Excellent background introduction to the Old Latin, Vulgate, and later versions.
87.1 Williamson, H. G. M. Understanding of the History of Ancient Israel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
The Meaning of salom
88. Beck, H., and Colin Brown. “Peace,” New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1978, 2: 776-83.
In the Hebrew Bible salom meant material well-being and the summation of all other goods, but it was bound with the social and political aspirations of Israel and involved all the gifts of Yahweh. With the Prophets it took on the meanings of salvation. Extensive use of biblical citations.
89. Gross, Heinrich. “Peace,” An Encyclopedia of Biblical Theology. The Complete Sacramentum Verbi. Johannes Baptist Bauer, ed. 3 vols. New York: Herder & Herder, 1970, 648-51.
Follows the development of salom from its Semitic roots in Sumerian silim and Akkadian salamu, meaning whole or uninjured, through the Hebrew concepts of harmony, success, even cooperation in battle. The Prophetic and eschatological traditions deepened the meanings of salom to both inner peace and the peace of those who share in the Covenant: the result of inner conversion in seeking justice. The use of Greek eirene to translate salom in the Septuagint brought new dimensions to the Greek word. Extensive use of biblical citations.
90. Hanson, Paul D. “War and Peace in the Hebrew Bible,” Interpretation (Richmond) 38, 4 (1984): 341-62.
Discusses the problem of war in the Hebrew Bible and Yahweh’s nature as a warrior God. There have historically been several responses: to deny any connection between Christianity and the Hebrew Bible, to reject biblical religion as a source of peacemaking, and to fall into Marionism, that is, to see the Hebrew Bible as a mere shadow, either as allegory or as false image.
While the Hebrew Bible’s teaching on war and peace has long been regarded as offensive to many Christians, it has much to teach, most especially on its interpretation of salom. This is the state of harmony given by God, embodying righteousness and compassion in communal life and in a universe that is essentially moral. In the Hebrew Bible we often see the disruption of this peace by royal ideology and its reassertion by the prophets.
91. Harris, James Douglas. Shalom: The Biblical Concept of Peace. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1970.
A good synthesis of a great deal of research. Meanings range from a source of community, inner peace, health and prosperity, the covenant, and salvation itself. God is the giver of salom, and the term also carries eschatological extensions. Also examines pre-New Testament connections, with eirene in Greek literature, and then explores New Testament meanings in the mission of Jesus and in the Pauline texts. The study concludes with some modern reflections.
92. La Barbera, Robert. “The Man of War and the Man of God: Social Satire in 2 Kings 6:8-7:20,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 46, 4 (1984): 637-51.
Traces the conflicts within the northern kingdom among the ruling elite: between kings armies, chariots and weapons that prove ineffective and the military victories brought by Yahweh through the word of the man of God, Elisha.
93. Léon-Dufour, Xavier. “Peace,” Dictionary of Biblical Theology. P. Joseph Cahill, ed.; E.M. Stewart, trans. New York: Seabury Press, 1973, 411-14.
Surveys the multiple meanings of peace for the ancient Hebrews from its Semitic roots. Salom’s meaning evolved from security, good health, and well being to mutual trust, communion with God, and peace as the result of prayer and of justice. Peace is not achieved through states or politics but through God’s eschatological restoration. Peace, finally, is the result of justice. Extensive use of biblical citations.
94. Luz, Ulrich, et al., eds. Eschatologie und Friedenshandeln: Exegetische Beitrage zur Frage Christlicher Friedensverantwortung. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1981.
An interdisciplinary look at biblical concepts of eschatology and peace, in the prophetic tradition of Micha, Isaias, and Deutero-Isaias. It also examines the apocalyptic tradition. Essays range from the Hebrew Bible to Paul.
95. Rodriquez, M. “Peace (in the Bible),” NCE 11: 37-38.
Surveys the meanings of salom in the Hebrew Bible from success and safety, prosperity and general well-being and its merging with the meanings of Greek eirene in the Septuagint to take on meanings of freedom from war and security. The Prophetic texts transform the meaning of salom from earthly to spiritual good, as the essence of God’s kingdom. Extensive use of biblical citations.
96. Skehan, P.W. “Septuagint,” NCE 2: 425-29.
Useful introduction to the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible where the meanings of salom merged with the Greek eirene.
97. Van der Ploeg, J., O.P. “Peace, I, In the Old Testament,” Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Bible. Louis F. Hartman, C.SS.R., trans. and ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963, 1782-84.
Traces the twenty-five meanings of salom in the Hebrew Bible from success in war to completeness, living well, prosperity and health, to good relations among individuals and groups, to God’s gift in the Covenant and the salvation brought by the Messiah and the Prince of Peace. Extensive use of biblical citations.
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